सदविचार

रत्न मिट्टी से ही निकलते हैं, स्वर्ण मंजुषाओं ने तो कभी एक भी रत्न उत्पन्न नहीं किया .
हमारा कर्तव्य है कि हम अपने शरीर को स्वस्थ्य रखें अन्यथा हम अपने मन को सक्षम और शुद्ध नहीं रख पाएंगे |
शीघ्र सोने और प्रात:काल जल्दी उठने वाला मानव अरोग्यवान,भाग्यवान और ज्ञानवान होता है |
सपने देखना बेहद जरुरी है, लेकिन केवल सपने देखकर ही मंजिल को हासिल नहीं किया जा सकता, सबसे ज्यादा जरुरी है जिंदगी में खुद के लिए कोई लक्ष्य तय करना |
स्वप्न दृष्टा और यथार्थ के सृष्टा बनिए |
अभिलाषा तभी फलदायक होती है, जब वह दृढ निश्चय में परिणित कर दे जाती है |
सौभाग्य उन्हीं को प्राप्त होता है, जो अपने कर्तव्य पथ पर अविचल रहते हैं |
कर्तव्य कभी आग और पानी की परवाह नहीं करता | कर्तव्य-पालन में ही चित्त की शांति है |

भारत में शिक्षा और साक्षरता

साक्षरता कार्यक्रम के मुख्य उद्देश्य निम्नवत् हैं :-
1. पढ़ने-लिखने, अंक ज्ञान में आत्मनिर्भर होना।
2. सामाजिक एवं आर्थिक स्थिति के दयनीय होने के कारणों की जानकारी पाना और संगठित होकर तथा विकास कार्यक्रमों में भागीदार बनकर अपनी स्थिति को सुधारने की कोशिश करना।
3. अपनी आर्थिक स्थिति को सुधारने के लिए नए हुनर सीखना।
4. र1ष्‍ट्रीय एकता पर्यावरण की सुरक्षा, महिलाओं और पुरूषों में समानता। छोटे परिवार के आदर्शों को समझना जैसे राष्‍ट्रीय एवं सामाजिक मूल्यों की जानकारी पाना।
साक्षरता का तात्पर्य सिर्फ़ पढ़ना-लिखना ही नहीं बल्कि यह सम्मान, अवसर और विकास से जुड़ा विषय है। दुनिया में शिक्षा और ज्ञान बेहतर जीवन जीने के लिए ज़रूरी माध्यम है। आज अनपढ़ता देश की तरक्की में बहुत बड़ी बाधा है। जिसके अभिशाप से ग़रीब और ग़रीब होता जा रहा है।
भारत भी बन सकता है, शत प्रतिशत साक्षर।
साक्षरता दिवस का दिन हमें सोचने को मज़बूर करता है, कि हम क्यो 100% साक्षर नहीं हैं। यदि केरल को छोड़ दिया जाए तो बाकि राज्यों की स्थिति बहुत अच्छी नहीं कही जा सकती है। सरकार द्वारा साक्षरता को बढ़ने के लिए सर्व शिक्षा अभियान, मिड दे मील योजना, प्रौढ़ शिक्षा योजना, राजीव गाँधी साक्षरता मिशन आदि न जाने कितने अभियान चलाये गये, मगर सफलता आशा के अनुरूप नहीं मिली। मिड दे मील में जहाँ बच्चो को आकर्षित करने के लिए स्कूलों में भोजन की व्यवस्था की गयी, इससे बच्चे स्कूल तो आते हैं, मगर पढ़ने नहीं खाना खाने आते हैं। शिक्षक लोग पढ़ाई की जगह खाना बनवाने की फिकर में लगे रहते हैं। हमारे देश में सरकारी तौर पर जो व्यक्ति अपना नाम लिखना जानता है, वह साक्षर है। आंकड़े जुटाने के समय जो घोटाला होता है, वो किसी से छुपा नहीं है। अगर सही तरीक़े से साक्षरता के आंकडे जुटाए जाए तो देश में 64.9% लोग शायद साक्षर न हो। सरकारी आंकडो पर विश्वास कर भी लिया जाए तो भारत में 75.3% पुरुष और 53.7% महिलायें ही साक्षर हैं।
विकास के पथ पर दौड़ते कदम, प्रगतिशील समाज की रचना और भविष्य सुदृढ़ बनाने की कल्पना किसी भी राष्ट्र को सामाजिक और आर्थिक पहलुओं पर अग्रिम पंक्ति में खड़ा करती है. आजादी से अब तक हमने बहुमुखी विकास किया है. विकासशील देश से विकसित देश बनने की चाह ने हमको नित नवीन आयामों पर कार्य करने की प्रेरणा दी जिसका हमें फल भी मिला. लेकिन आंशिक फल के आधार पर हम पूरी राष्ट्र व्यवस्था में बदलाव नहीं ला सकते.

भारतवर्ष ! अलग – अलग समुदाओं का घरौंदा जिसका आदर्श अनेकता में एकता है हम भारतवासियों को सशक्तिकरण प्रदान करता है. भारतीय जनसंख्या खासकर युवा समुदाय की भरमार हमारे देश की सबसे बड़ी ताकत है. कहना गलत नहीं होगा कि युवा देश की आधारशिला होते हैं. परन्तु जैसे की कथनी और करनी में फ़र्क होता है वैसे ही अगर युवा शक्ति का प्रयोग उचित दिशा में नहीं हुआ तो इससे विकास की बजाय विनाश हो सकता है.

सरकार की नीतियों में शामिल युवा समाज का उत्थान राष्ट्र कल्याण में एक अहम कदम था. इन नीतियों के अंतर्गत सर्व शिक्षा अभियान और साक्षरता मिशन ने एक ऐसे समाज की कल्पना की जो ज्ञानवान हो वर्तमान और भविष्य से अवगत. राष्ट्र उत्थान को बल देती हुई शिक्षा जिसमें ज्ञान को आधार माना गया था. लेकिन दशकों बाद भी यह सोच केवल कल्पना मात्र रह गयी है क्योंकि आज हम साक्षर तो हैं लेकिन ज्ञान से वंचित. ज्ञानवान समाज के निर्माण की धारणा अब कोई विमर्श का विषय नहीं रह गया है. आज हम साक्षर हैं लेकिन ज्ञान से अंजान. साक्षरता और शिक्षा में सबसे बड़ा अंतर विश्लेषण क्षमता का होता है. साक्षरता का आधार शिक्षा अर्जित करना होता है और शिक्षा का आधार ज्ञान. हम पढ़ लिख तो सकते हैं लेकिन किसी चीज़ की व्याख्या नहीं कर सकते.
साक्षर भारतवासी ही भारत की शक्ति

सर्वशिक्षा अभियान, सतत् शिक्षा और शिक्षा का अधिकार जैसी कई सरकारी पहलों के बावजूद भारत में विश्व की 35 फीसदी निरक्षर आबादी भारतीयों की है, साथ ही उसकी 68 प्रतिशत साक्षरता दर, वैश्विक साक्षरता दर 84 प्रतिशत से काफी पीछे है। भारतीय साक्षरता दर में महिला-पुरूष के बीच का भेदभाव गहरा है, जहां पुरूष वयस्क साक्षरता दर 76.9 फीसदी है, वहीं महिला वयस्क साक्षरता दर महज 54.5 फीसदी है।
आजादी के बाद भारत देश में वर्ष 1950 के दौरान साक्षरता की दर 18 फीसदी थी, जो 1991 में बढ़कर 52 फीसदी हो गई। इसके बाद साक्षरता की दर 2001 में 65 फीसदी तक पहुंची, जो कि भारत सरकार के सार्थक प्रयासों से संभव हुआ और अब तो शत् प्रतिशत् साक्षर करने के लिए योजनाएं बनाई जा रही है। केन्द्र व राज्य सरकारें, शहरों व ग्रामीण क्षेत्रों में झुग्गी झोपड़ी में रहने वालों को साक्षर करने के लिए गैर सरकारी संस्थाओं व समाज सेवी संस्थाओं की मदद ले रही है। सन् 2001 की जनगणना के अनुसार कुल जनसंख्या के केवल 54 प्रतिशत महिलाएं ही पढना लिखना जानती थी, जबकि पुरूषों में 75 प्रतिशत पढ़े लिखे थे। 15 वर्ष से ऊपर की व्यस्क महिलाओं में 47.82 प्रतिशत पढ़ लिख सकती थी। देश के विभिन्न हिस्सों में प्रौढ़ महिला साक्षरता का स्तर 15 से 94 प्रतिशत् तक फर्क लिए हुए था। यह एक ऐसा अनुपात था, जिसे पूरा करने के लिए विशेष योजना बनानी पड़ी। देश के 365 जिलों में महिला साक्षरता दर 50 प्रतिशत से कम है। अनुसूचित जाति व अनुसूचित जनजाति की महिलाओं में 41.90 प्रतिशत तथा 34.76 प्रतिशत पढना लिखना जानती है। सन् 2001 में पुरूष साक्षरता 78.85 प्रतिशत और महिला साक्षरता 54.16 प्रतिशत था, जबकि केरल की साक्षरता 90.92 प्रतिशत थी, जिसमें 94.20 प्रतिशत पुरूष 87.86 महिलाएं साक्षर थी। वर्ष 2001 की जनगणना ने सकारात्मक संकेत प्रदान किए। महिला साक्षरता दर में 14.38 फीसदी की वृद्धि हुई जबकि पुरूष साक्षरता दर में 11.13 फीसदी की वृद्धि हुई। इससे स्पष्ट होता है कि साक्षरता के क्षेत्र में महिला पुरूष का अंतर समाप्त होता जा रहा है। वहीं प्राथमिक स्तर पर जहां 1950-51 में स्कूलों में दाखिला लेने वाले बच्चों की संख्या 19,200,000 थी, जो 2001-02 में बढ़कर 109,800,000 हो गई। आजादी के बाद से साक्षरता दर 1950-51 के 18.33 प्रतिशत से बढ़कर 2001 में 64.1 फीसदी हो गई। देश में साक्षरता दर बढने का संकेत मिलता है, लेकिन जनसंख्या वृद्धि इतनी अधिक है कि हर दशक में निरक्षरों की कुल संख्या बढ़ती ही चली गई। बावजूद इसके 1991 से 2001 का दशक ऐसी अवधि रही, जब पहली बार निरक्षरों की संख्या में कमी आई। इस दशक में बिहार, नगालैंड और मणिपुर ही मात्र ऐसे राज्य थे, जहां निरक्षरों की कुल संख्या में वृद्धि हुइर्, जबकि उनके प्रतिशत में कमी आई।
राष्ट्रीय साक्षरता अभियान
राष्ट्रीय साक्षरता अभियान को 5 मई, 1988 में तकनीकी अभियान के रूप में 15-35 वर्ष की आयु वर्ग के लोगों को कार्यात्मक साक्षरता प्रदान करने के लिए आरंभ किया गया था। इस आयु वर्ग पर विशेष ध्यान केंद्रित किया गया क्योंकि यह वर्ग इस समय अपने जीवन के उत्पादन एवं प्रजनन के दौर से गुजर रहा है। राष्ट्रीय साक्षरता नीति 1986 को वर्ष 1992 मेंं संशोधित किया गया था और राष्टी्रय साक्षरता अभियान को देश से निरक्षरता समाप्त करने के तीन हथियारों में से एक हथियार के रूप में मान्यता दी गई। अन्य दो हथियार प्राथमिक शिक्षा का सर्वसुलभीकरण तथा अनौपचारिक शिक्षा है। इस अभियान का उद्देश्य 15-35 वर्ष की आयु वर्ग के आठ करोड़ निरक्षर लोगों को साक्षर बनाना था। वर्ष 1991 तक 3 करोड़ तथा वर्ष 2001 तक 5 करोड़ लोगों को साक्षर बनाने का लक्ष्य रखा गया था। हालांकि वर्ष 2001 तक अभियान के द्वारा 75 प्रतिशत लोगों का साक्षर बनाया गया है।अभियान में 9-14 वर्ष की आयु वर्ग के बच्चों को भी शामिल किया गया है। ये उस क्षेत्र में आते है जहां पर अनौपचारिक शिक्षा कार्यक्रम नहीं चलाये जाते तथा इसके द्वारा विद्यालय न जाने वाले छात्रों को भी लाभ पंहुचाना है। इन कार्यक्रमों का मुख्य ज़ोर महिलाओं, अनुसूचित जातियों, अनुसूचित जनजातियों तथा पिछड़े वर्गों में साक्षरता को बढ़ावा देना है।राष्ट्रीय साक्षरता अभियान का उद्देश्य यह सुनिश्चित करना है कि सतत शिक्षा को संपूर्ण साक्षरता अभियान और उसके बाद साक्षरता उपरांत कार्यक्रमों के ज़रिये जारी रखा जाए, जो लंबे समय तक शिक्षा मुहैया कराये तथा शिक्षित समाज के निर्माण में अपनी ज़िम्मेदारी निभाये।
संपूर्ण साक्षरता अभियान
देश से निरक्षरता को समाप्त करने के लिए संपूर्ण साक्षरता अभियान राष्ट्रीय साक्षरता अभियान की एक प्रमुख रणनीति है। इस कार्यक्रम में कुछ सकारात्मक गुण भी है जैसे, क्षेत्र विशेष पर आधारित, समयबद्धता, सहभागिता, लागत में सस्ता और परिणाम देने वाला। यह अभियान पूर्व निर्धारित साक्षरता को प्राप्त करने पर जोर देता हैं। इस अभियान को सभी के लिए नामांकन तथा विद्यालय में उपस्थिति, प्रतिरक्षा, पर्यावरण संरक्षण और महिला सशक्तीकरण आदि जैसी अन्य गतिविधियों से जोड़ा गया है। संपूर्ण साक्षरता अभियान की अवधि 12 से 18 महीने मानी गई है जिसमें से आधी अवधि तैयारी के लिए और बाकी की आधी वास्तविक अध्यापन एवं पढ़ाई के लिए है। जो क्षेत्र अत्यंत दुर्गम है वहां पर उचित रूप से इस अवधि का विस्तार किया जा सकता है। इस अभियान की पूरी अवधि के दौरान दो कार्यक्रमों पर्यावरण निर्माण तथा निगरानी के साथ-साथ आतंरिक मूल्यांकन को जारी रखा जाएगा।पर्यावरण निर्माण कार्यक्रम की आरंभिक गतिविधियों को प्रत्येक घर के सर्वेक्षण के आधार पर चलाया जाएगा ताकि पढ़ने वालों की क्षमताओं की पहचान की जा सके। वयस्क शिक्षा के लिए राज्य संसाधन केंद्रों के ज़रिए तीन चरणों में उचित सर्वश्रेष्ठों का विकास किया जाएगा। इसमें सुधरी हुई गति एवं अध्ययन के तत्वों की नई तकनीकों की सहायता ली जाएगी।संपूर्ण साक्षरता अभियान की तीन चरण वाली प्रबंधन संरचना में ज़िलो से लेकर ग्रामीण स्तर तक की लोकप्रिय समितियां हैं। इनमें ज़िला साक्षरता समितियां, जिनको उप-समितियों के द्वारा समर्थन दिया जा रहा है, ज़िला एवं ब्लॉक स्तरीय प्रशासन के अधिकारी शामिल है।साक्षरता अभियानों को ज़िला साक्षरता समितियों के द्वारा लागू किया जा रहा है। इनकी अध्यक्षता सामान्यत: ज़िला कलेक्टरों के द्वारा की जा रही है। सामान्य ज़िलों में केंद्र तथा राज्य सरकार के अधिकारियों का अनुपात 2 :1 है और जनजातिय क्षेत्रों में यह अनुपात 4 : 1 है। इस कार्यक्रम के तहत अध्यापन पर 90-180 रूपये का खर्चा आता है।
11वीं पंचवर्षीय योजना के दौरान माध्यमिक शिक्षा
11वीं पंचवर्षीय योजना के दौरान माध्यमिक शिक्षा के लिए नई पहलें की जा रही हैं जिनमें स्कूलों में सूचना एवं संचार प्रौद्योगिकी भी शामिल है। राज्य सरकार तथा निजी भागीदारी के साथ स्कूलों में एक संशोधित सूचना एवं संचार प्रौद्योगिकी योजना को लागू किया जाएगा। यह योजना एक लाख स्कूलों से भी ज्यादा सरकारी, स्थानीय निकायों तथा सरकारी सहायता प्राप्त माध्यमिक तथा उच्चतर माध्यमिक स्कूलों में ब्राॉडबैण्ड संपर्कता के साथ सूचना एवं संचार प्रौद्योगिकी साक्षरता एवं कम्प्यूटरीकृत शिक्षा मुहैया करायेगी। प्राथमिक तथा माध्यमिक स्तर पर भी कम्प्यूटरीकृत शिक्षा आरंभ करने के भी प्रयास किये जा रहे हैं।

What is An Environment

It is wherever you are. You know like when your at a party and it's really loud and your having a good time, well you would probably say the environment is noisy.

• Environment , the physical and biological factors along with their chemical interactions that affect an organism. Word "Environment" is most commonly used describing "natural" environment and means the sum of all living and non-living things that surround an organism, or group of organisms. Environment includes all elements, factors , and conditions that have some impact on growth and development of certain organism. Environment includes both biotic and abiotic factors that have influence on observed organism. Abiotic factors such as light, temperature, water, atmospheric gases combine with biotic factors (all surrounding living species). Environment often changes after some time and therefore many organisms have ability to adapt to these changes.
• That which environs or surrounds; surrounding conditions, influences, or forces, by which living forms are influenced and modified in their growth and development.The environment is your surroundings, your house, your garden, your town, your shops, the hills and rivers, the ocean, the air and so on.
• All plants and animals adjust to the environment in which they are born
• and live. A charge in any component of the environment may cause discomfort and affect normal life. Any unfavorable change or degeneration in the environment is known as Environmental Pollution. The environment is something you are very familiar with. It's everything that makes up our surroundings and affects our ability to live on the earth—the air we breathe, the water that covers most of the earth's surface, the plants and animals around us, and much more.
• Our Environment is our surrounding. This includes living and non-living things around us.
• 
  
• Land is the upper layer of our planet earth. It is made up of soil and rocks.
• Land stores water and provides a surface to live on. Soil contains nutrients and air
to nurse germs and plants. Fertility of the soil has been built up over hundreds of years. Soil is likely to be washed away with rain water or blown away by wind, if it is not protected under the cover of grasses, crops or trees.

CONCEPT OF ZERO

The first thing to say about zero is that there are two uses of zero which are both extremely important but are somewhat different. One use is as an empty place indicator in our place-value number system. Hence in a number like 2106 the zero is used so that the positions of the 2 and 1 are correct. Clearly 216 means something quite different. The second use of zero is as a number itself in the form we use it as 0. There are also different aspects of zero within these two uses, namely the concept, the notation, and the name.

... the mathematical conception of zero ... was also present in the spiritual form from 17 000 years back in India.

The nr. zero was invented independently in India and by the Maya. In India a decimal system was used, like ours, but they used an empty space for zero up to 3rd Century BC. This was confusing for an empty space was also used to separate numbers, and so they invented the dot for a zero. The first evidence for the use of the symbol that we now know as zero stems from the 7th century AD. The Maya invented the number zero for their calendars in the 3rd century AD. The number zero reached European civilisation through the Arabs after 800 AD. The Greek and Roman did not need the number zero for they did their calculations on an abacus. The name 'zero' comes from the arabic 'sifr'.

In around 500AD Aryabhata devised a number system which has no zero yet was a positional system. He used the word "kha" for position and it would be used later as the name for zero. There is evidence that a dot had been used in earlier Indian manuscripts to denote an empty place in positional notation. It is interesting that the same documents sometimes also used a dot to denote an unknown where we might use x. Later Indian mathematicians had names for zero in positional numbers yet had no symbol for it. The first record of the Indian use of zero which is dated and agreed by all to be genuine was written in 876. We are usually taught to count "one to ten" first. Then, we are told that zero is a placeholder. After that we learn that it is equal to nothing. In this article, you'll learn a much easier way to understand the concept of zero.

(1) A quantity divided by zero becomes a fraction the denominator of which is zero. This fraction is termed an infinite quantity. In this quantity consisting of that which has zero for its divisor, there is no alteration, though many may be inserted or extracted; as no change takes place in the infinite and immutable God when worlds are created or destroyed, though numerous orders of beings are absorbed or put forth.

(2) If we subtract a positive number from zero the same negative number remains. ... if we subtract a negative number from zero the same positive number remains.

The concept of Zero is attributed to the Hindus. The Hindus were also the first to use zero in the way it is used today. Some symbol was required in positional number systems to mark the place of a power of the base not actually occurring. This was indicated by the Hindus by a small circle, which was called Shunya, the Sanskrit word for vacant. This was translated into the Arabic Sifr about 800 A.D. Subsequent changes have given us the word zero. The sum of zero and a negative number is negative, the sum of a positive number and zero is positive, the sum of zero and zero is zero. Quipu, a knotted cord device, used in the Inca Empire and its predecessor societies in the Andeanregion to record accounting and other digital data, is encoded in a base ten positional system. Zero is represented by the absence of a knot in the appropriate position. The renowned mathematicians among the Ancient Greeks, who learned the fundamentals of their math from the Egyptians, did not have a name for zero, nor did their system feature a placeholder as did the Babylonian. They may have pondered it, but there is no conclusive evidence to say the symbol even existed in their language. It was the Indians who began to understand zero both as a symbol and as an idea. The Italian mathematician, Fibonacci, built on Al-Khowarizmi's work with algorithms in his book Liber Abaci, or "Abacus book," in 1202. Until that time, the abacus had been the most prevalent tool to perform arithmetic operations. Fibonacci's developments quickly gained notice by Italian merchants and German bankers, especially the use of zero. Accountants knew their books were balanced when the positive and negative amounts of their assets and liabilities equaled zero. But governments were still suspicious of Arabic numerals because of the ease in which it was possible to change one symbol into another. Though outlawed, merchants continued to use zero in encrypted messages, thus the derivation of the word cipher, meaning code, from the Arabic sifr. The second appearance of zero occurred independently in the New World, in Mayan culture, likely in the first few centuries A.D. "That, I suppose, is the most striking example of the zero being devised wholly from scratch," Kaplan says. Kaplan pinpoints an even earlier emergence of a placeholder zero, a pair of angled wedges used by the Sumerians to denote an empty number column some 4,000 to 5,000 years ago. Zero has played quite a role in making of numerals or at least modern numerals. The modern numerals were based on the Arabic numeric system as indicated by this article. Al-Khw rizm+ laid foundation to modern numerics in Arabic format of course. Not to forget he is the same guy who laid foundation of Algebra and Algorithms to name a a few. IMPORTANCE OF ZERO: Before you talk about existence or non-existence of zero would you care to explain what mathematical objects you think do exist and in what sense. Moreover, why are these other things you trust not also inventions "just to make stuff work"? if i have an apple i name the quantity 1... so if i have two apples i can i can do 1*2 and get 2 apples... so in that sense 1 exists.... but saying that you have 0 apples when you have nothing is not the same thing... because 0 is nothing... One might have thought that the progress of the number systems in general, and zero in particular, would have been steady from this time on. However, this was far from the case. Cardan solved cubic and quartic equations without using zero. He would have found his work in the 1500's so much easier if he had had a zero but it was not part of his mathematics. By the 1600's zero began to come into widespread use but still only after encountering a lot of resistance. Zero,(that is ,the '0'symbol in mathematics) is really a wonderful invention by our anicients.A heap of objects however large can be counted easily by deviding them into groups of ten objects. Again ten such groups, each containing ten objects, can be sealed into a bag to contain one hundred objects .Ten such bags can be put into a bigger bag which then contains 1000 objects.

NEW_BOOKS Just Released : TEACHING OF MATHEMATICS & GANIT SHIKSHAN : (HINDI)

TEACHING OF MATHEMATICS
CHAMAN LAL BANGA
ISBN : 9788175416130(HB); 9788175416147(PB)
Year : 2012
Bibliography : xii+284pp
Price : Rs. 750 (HB);
About the Book
Mathematics, the science of calculation and logical reasoning, has played a decisive role in building up every civilization. Mathematics, like every thing else that man has created, exists to fulfill not only certain needs and desires but also helps in faster development in this digital age. So it also occupies an important place in the curriculum. The book written in simple language may be found useful by its users.

About the Author
Chaman Lal Banga, M.A., M.Ed., NET & J.R.F. (Education) has been associated with teaching profession for the last seven years. He taught to B.Ed. students in Himachal Pradesh and is presently working with Department of Education, Government of Himachal Pradesh at Chamba, HP.

GANIT SHIKSHAN : (HINDI)
CHAMAN LAL BANGA, R.K. DIXIT
ISBN : 9788175416116(HB); 9788175416123(PB)
Year : 2012
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CTET 2012 : HIMACHAL PRADESH (GK)

• Himachal Pradesh Popularly known as the Devbhumi ­– "Land of the Gods".
• Himachal Pradesh is a beautiful hill state in India, nestles in north-west region of western Himalayas.
• The state is landlocked with the Tibetan plateau to the east, Jammu and Kashmir to the north, and the Punjab to the west.
• Himachal Pradesh has been on the path of progress since Independence. The literacy rate of the state is 63% now and is improving every decade.
• The population has almost stabilized at about 5 million, thanks to high literacy and effective family planning programs.
• Every village in the state has electricity and drinking water now.

Himachal as Devbhoomi

• Shiva is one of the gods of the Trinity. He is said to be the god of destruction.
• Shiva is believed to be at the core of the centrifugal force of the universe, because of his responsibility for death and destruction. But Shiva dissolves in order to create, since death is the medium for rebirth into a new life.
• So the opposites of life and death and creation and destruction both reside in his character. The other two gods are Brahma, the god of creation and Vishnu, the god of maintenance.
• The three gods represent the three fundamental powers of nature which are manifest in the world viz. creation, destruction and maintenance.
• These powers exist perpetually. Creation is going on all the time. So is destruction and maintenance. All three powers are manifest at all times.
• They are inseparable. Creation and destruction are like two sides of a coin. And maintenance is an integral part of the processes of creation and destruction. For example, morning dies to give birth to noon. Noon dies when night is born.
• In this chain of birth and death the day is maintained. To indicate that these three processes are one and the same, the three gods are combined in one form of Lord Dattatreya. Lord Dattatreya has the faces of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva.
• Himachal Pradesh is called the ‘Apple State’ because the country’s first apples were cultivated here. It was also the first Indian state to process potatoes.
• Asia’s largest fruit-processing plant and the world’s highest cricket grounds are located at Parwanoo and Chail (near Shimla) in Himachal Pradesh.
• The state is located in altitudes ranging from 450 meters to 6500 meters above sea level.
• It is veiled from the plains by the Shivalik range of mountains. (Shivalik literally means the tresses of Lord Shiva).
• There is a general increase in elevation from west to east and from south to north.
• The physiographic divisions from south to north are (1) The outer Himalayas or the Shivaliks (2) The lesser Himalayas or the central zone (3) The great Himalayan and Zaskar or the northern zone.
• Himachal has 49 cities and towns.
• The smallest town is Naina Devi and the largest is Shimla with a population of about 6,17,404.
• Urban population is only 7.5% of the total population.
• The state of Himachal Pradesh has an area of 55,673 sq. km. and a population of 6.08 million.
• There are 12 districts, 77 blocks and 20118 villages.
• The State has population density of 109 per sq. km. (as against the national average of 312).
• The decadal growth rate of the state is 17.54% (against 21.54% for the country) and the population of the state is growing at a slower rate than the national rate.
• Himachal Pradesh way back in the ninth century. In 1009 AD, Himachal Pradesh saw the invasion of Mahmud Ghazni, who had looted the wealth from the temples in north India.
• Himachal Pradesh was also no exception to his plunders.
• After the independence of India in 1947, Himachal Pradesh became a centrally administered territory with the integration of 31 hill provinces.
• Some additional regions were integrated into the ambit of Himachal Pradesh in 1966. In 1956, Himachal Pradesh became a union territory, and it was elevated to the status of statehood on 25 January 1971.

  · The state of Himachal Pradesh was called 'Deva Bhoomi ' or the Land of the Gods. There are evidences of the existence of the pre-historic humans in this region.

  · The earliest history of Himachal Pradesh dates back to the period between 2250 and 1750 BC when it was inhabited by the people of Indus valley civilization.

  · These people pushed the original inhabitants of Ganga plains who were known as Kolorian people towards north.

  · The first race to enter Himachal Pradesh was Proto-Australoid followed by Mongoloid and the Aryan.

  · The Rig Veda mentions about Dasyus and Nishads living in this region and their powerful king Shambra who had 99 forts.

  · From the early period of its history, tribes like the Koilis, Halis, Dagis, Dhaugris, Dasa, Khasas, Kinnars and Kirats inhabited it.

  · In the Vedas they (people of Himachal) have been referred to as Dasas, Dasyus and Nishadas while in later works they have been called Kinnars, Nagas and Yakshas.

  · The small kingdom enjoyed a large degree of independence till the eve of the Muslim invasions in northern India

  · . The states of the foothills were devastated by Muslim invaders a number of times.Mahmud Ghaznavi conquered Kangra at the beginning of the 10th century.

  · Timur and Sikander Lodi also marched through the lower hills of the state and captured a number of forts and fought manybattles.
  The Gorkhas, a martial tribe came to power in Nepal in the year 1768. They consolidated their military power and began to expand their territory.

  · The Gurkhas who migrated from Nepal captured the area and devastated it . Gradually the Gorkhas annexed Sirmour and Shimla. With the leadership of Amar Singh Thapa, Gorkhas laid siege to Kangra.

WORK EDUCATION & WORK EXPERIENCE ; EDUCATION FOR VALUES, ENVIRONMENT & HUMAN RIGHTS

INDIAN GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS: PROCESS AND DYNAMICS

INDIAN GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS: PROCESS AND DYNAMICS

CHAMAN LAL BANGA

M.A.POLITICAL SCIENCE (DISTANCE LEARNING)

INDIAN GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS: PROCESS AND DYNAMICS

By

Chaman Lal Banga

B.Sc; B.Ed; M.Ed; M.A.(Pol. Science)

NET (Pol. Science)

NET (Education);

JRF (Education).

PREFACE

It is by the Grace and Blessing of the Almighty God that the writing of this book has reached its stage of completion. I bow by head to Him for his mercy.

The present book is an attempt to provide a useful literature to Prospective teachers.

This book is prepared in accordance with the UGC curriculum. It is organized into V - UNITS. This book fully covers the courses contents of the paper entitle” TEACHING & RESEARCH APTITUDE”. This book contains objective questions on all the topics in this paper. This book has been written particularly for University Grant Commission- National Eligibility Test & Junior Research Fellowship Test. While writing this book special care has been taken to incorporate quality material. Because it is quality which matters not quantity.

I hope students appearing in UGC-NET/JRF examination in the Indian Universities will find this book as a concise guide to meet their requirements.

I am extremely beholden to my respected father Shri Ghisu Ram Banga and wife Mrs.Manju Banga , & brother Jogi Ram Kanyal, who been a pillar of strength in my work all through.

I am greatly indebted to all my friends and well-wishers to encourage me to write a handy book on UGC-NET/JRF.

The author is grateful to all the publishers and authors whose work he has made use of in preparing this book.

I shall remain indebted to & Sh. D.K.Jain, Principal JNV Sarol Chamba, & Dr.B.S.Jamwal, for their invaluable help and guidance. The author extends his sincere thanks to Anshah Publishing House for bringing out this book in a short span of time. Only reader’s valuable suggestions and feedback can make this book a phenomenal success

Author

CHAMAN LAL BANGA

SYLLABUS

M.A. POLITICAL SCIENCE (DISTANCE LEARNING)

UNIT- I

1. Colonialism, Nationalism, Historical and Ideological Basis of the Constitution.
2. Basic Structures of the Constitution.

UNIT- II

3. Issues and trends; Federalism; Regionalism; National Integration.

UNIT- III

4. Political Parties, Pressure Groups, Defection, Coalition Politics, Electoral Politics.

UNIT- IV

5. Politics of Castes, Tribe, Religion and Language.
6. Political Violence and Political Corruption.

UNIT- V

7. Civil Society: Gender Politics, Environment Politics, N.G.O’s.
8. Tribal Movement, Dalit Movement and Peasant Movement.

UNIT- I

1. Colonialism, Nationalism, Historical and Ideological Basis of the Constitution. 2. Basic Structures of the Constitution.

Chapter 1

Colonialism

Colonialism is the building and maintaining of colonies in one territory by people from another territory. Colonialism is a process whereby sovereignty over the colony is claimed by the metropole and social structure, government and economics within the territory of the colony are changed by the colonists. Colonialism is a certain set of unequal relationships, between metropole and colony and between colonists and the indigenous population. --------------------------------- COLONIALISM.

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS (UGC/NET/JRF) (PRACTICE )

1. Which one of the following is the main objective of teaching?

(A) To give information related to the syllabus.

(B) To develop thinking power of students.

(C) To dictate notes to students.

(D) To prepare students to pass the examination.

2. Which one of the following is a good method of teaching?

(A) Lecture and Dictation

(B) Seminar and Project

(C) Seminar and Dictation

(D) Dictation and Assignment

3. Teacher uses teaching aids for

(A) Making teaching interesting

(B) Making teaching within understanding level of students

(C) Making students attentive.

(D) The sake of its use.

4. Effectiveness of teaching depends on

(A) Qualification of teacher

(B) Personality of teacher

(C) Handwriting of teacher

(D) Subject understanding of teacher

5. Which of the following is not characteristic of a good question paper?

(A) Objectivity

(B) Subjectivity

(C) No use of vague words

(D) Reliable.

6. A researcher is generally expected to:

(A) Study the existing literature in a field

(B) Generate new principles and theories

(C) Synthesize the idea given by others

(D) Evaluate the findings of a study

7. One of the essential characteristics of research is:

(A) Replicability

(B) Generalizability

(C) Usability

(D) Objectivity

8. The Government of India conducts Census after every 10 years. The method of research used in this process is:

(A) Case Study

(B) Developmental

(C) Survey

(D) Experimental

9. An academic association assembled at one place to discuss the progress of its work and future plans. Such an assembly is known as a

(A) Conference

(B) Seminar

(C) Workshop

(D) Symposium

10. An investigator studied the census date for a given area and prepared a write-up based on them. Such a write-up is called

(A) Research paper

(B) Article

(C) Thesis

(D) Research report

CTET & STET 2012 : HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Education was considered as the greatest gift in ancient India. The real goal of the education is to fit a person for his work in life. Ancient Indian education was primarily the education of the “Vedas”. In Vedic period India evolved different systems of education in accordance with the changing needs of the time.

Philosophy of Life and Characteristics of Education in Ancient India:

The vedas are the original source of the Philosophy of life. The knowledge derived from the Vedas alone can give real happiness to an individual. The “Veda” means ‘to know’, but it is the Veda which inspires to get the knowledge of god. The ancient seers of India, though not very much to affairs have not neglected ‘Karma’.

Development of education can be studied under three important periods:

(A) Vedic Period (B) Brahmanic Period (C) Buddhist Period

Education in Vedic Period:

“No Doubt countries like china Egypt and Babylonia rank with India as being the cradles of ancient Civilizations, but no other country has left behind such enduring marks of heritage as India.”

According to Manusmriti, “This body is made godly by a through study of three Vedas.”

Vedic Period is the most significant period of India’s Cultural heritages. Vedas occupy a very important place in Indian Life. On the basis of Indian Culture Vedas, are four in number:

1. Rig-Veda 2. Sam Veda 3. Yajurveda 4. Atharvaveda.

Meaning of ‘Vedas’:

The Literal meaning of ‘Vedas’ is the knowledge and the ‘Vedas’ derived from ‘vid’ root meaning ‘to know’. Or ‘Veda’ means the knowledge of various types.

Aims of Vedic Education:

• Education for other world lines.
• Character formation.
• All round development for Personality.
• Intellectual Development
• Spiritual Development
• Preparation for living
• Preserving and Transmitting Culture
• Education only a means and not an end in itself.

Ideals of Education:

• Liberation.
• Control of mind.

Methods of Learning:

• Listening (Sarvana)
• Deliberation (Manana or Chintan)
• Meditation (Nidhidhyarama).
• Illustration
• Project Method

Characteristics of Vedic Education:

• Vedas are the eldest World Literature.
• Suitable age of education.
• Rig-Veda is the mirror of Ancient Indian culture and civilization.
• Perfection in Education.
• The main aim of Vedic education was to liberate the soul from worldly bondages.
• Equal rights to education for all.
• Ideal of teacher.
• Education standard in the family.
• Equal opportunity to gain education.

Agencies of Vedic Education:

There are three agencies of education:-

• Guru Kula
• Parishad
• Sammelan.

Objectives of Education:

• Religious Preaching’s.
• Knowledge of Literature.
• Spiritual Knowledge.
• Brahman Realization.
• Removal of Ignorance.
• Physical and Intellectual development.
• Inculcation of Civic and Social Virtues.
• Preservation and Spread of Culture.
• Immediate and Ultimate Aim.

Curriculum:

1. Vedic Literature:

• The Rig-Veda.
• The Yajurveda.
• The Sam Veda
• The Atharvaveda

2. Vedangas.
3. Hetuvidya.
4. Silpa-vidya.
5. Physical Education.
6. Stress on other worldliness.

Student life in Vedic Age: Student life in Vedic society was worked by a ritual called

‘Upanayana’.

Brahmanic Education

Education in Brahmanic age was to a great extent only a refind and developed form of Vedic education. Practical and useful subjects in Post-Vedic Period increased the importance of Brahmanic education. A significant characteristic of this period is the determination of syllabus according to the Caste ad Ashram system.

Main Features of Brahmanic Education:

1. Aims of Education: Brahmanic education promotes material and helped to attain salvation to pupils. Brahmanic education aimed at the spiritual development and attainment of supreme knowledge. Education emphasized preparation for life and all round development of Personality. Formation of moral character, purity of heart, self-control. Self-confidence and self-reliance were the main objectives of Brahmanic education.

2. Curriculum: Brahmanic education the educated was to learn Vedic mantras, knowledge of religious rituals like ‘Karamkanda’ ‘Havan’ and ‘Yajna’. In Brahmanic education was essentially religious and spiritual in character. Practically all the useful subjects were included in the curriculum. All this led towards salvation. Vendanga and Puranas also included in the curriculum Prosody and Rhetoric’s started. In Brahmanic education, ‘Karma Sidhant’ and stratification of caste system had an effect on study. There was provision for selection of curriculum according to choice of students in terms of caste, aptitude, ability and caste.

3. Methods of teaching: In Brahmanic education the art of writing had developed in the Brahman age and books were written with hand on leaves of the Talapatra and Bhojpatra, Discussion, Answering of Questions, Debates, conferences, Painting. The method of teaching consisted repetition by the pupils. Brahmanic education laid a good deal of stress on self study.

4. Role of Teacher: Teacher was the highly source and head of all knowledge. The teacher is compared with Vishnu and God Shiva. He was an embodiment of all good qualities. He was regarded as the guide, builder and teacher of the society. The role of teacher in Brahmanic education was to assist the students in:

· Attainment of supreme knowledge.

· Physical and Mental development.

· Spiritual development.

· Self-control.

· Propagating the ideas of Love

· All round development of Personality.

· Preservation and development of Culture.

5. Educational Institutions: Gurukulas, “Parisheads, Sammelans, were promote higher order of learning student at the Guru Kula was availed himself of opportunity to mould his life and live idealistic life. Higher learning were the parishads. The Parishads were just like the judicial assemblies. The conferences of learned men were also called to promote higher learning.

6. Other Salient Features:

· Education was given free.

· Brahmanic education was spiritual as well as materialistic in nature.

· Vaishyas and Shudras were not educationally developed.

· Samavartan upadesh was given to the pupil after completion of his education at Gurukul.

· Some of its special features such as pupil-teacher relations, moral discipline, individual attention, intellectual freedom.

Buddhist Education

Lord Buddha, the founder of Buddhism did not write any book himself. His followers made the collection of his preaching 100 years after his death. The collection is known as ‘Tripitikas’ which are of three forms (Pitak):

· Vinay Pitak.

· Sakta Pitak.

· Abhidhamma Pitak.

Basic Truths of Buddhism:

· Life is full of sorrows.

· Sufferings have causes.

· Elimination of suffering.

Salient features of Buddhists Education:

1. Objectives of Education: The main aim of education was to attain ‘Salvation’. Buddha formulated eightfold path, known as Ashtang Marg. Mainly, eight objectives of Buddhists education:

· Right Will

· Right Speech.

· Right Actions.

· Right Vocation.

· Right Exercise.

· Right Memory

· Right Concentration.

· Right knowledge

2. Curriculum: In Buddhist Education, Education was divided into two

Stages:

i) Primary Education

ii) Higher Education.

Primary Education of the period aimed at teaching reading, writing and arithmetic. The Jetkas stories indicate that during the Buddhist period. At the higher stage students studied a variety of different subjects. The Buddhists raised India’s international status. Korea, Tibet, Java and other distant countries were attracted to them. In Buddhist monasteries Word knowledge, Painting, Printing, Sculpture, Medicine Knowledge, Logic Spiritual Education, Games and Sports, Archery, Geology, Arithmetic and Religious discussion were included.

3. Methods of Teaching: Verbal Methods was used during the Vedic age. Buddhism emphasis teaching of all subjects through Palli. Question-Answer Method, Debates and Discussions were organized to bring about proper education. Direct Method had a great recourse for teacher and knowledge was presented in the form of sutras Method of Meditation was practiced by Monks to realize the supreme knowledge.

4. The Teacher and His Role: In the Buddhist’s Period, teacher called ‘Acharya’. He was pious, religious and spiritual. The teacher must give the Bhikshus all possible intellectual and spiritual help and guidance by teaching, by instruction. Teacher will follows the Buddha’s Eight fold Path. In Buddhism Teachers as of three distinct types:

i) Acharyas

ii) Upadhyas

iii) Special Teachers.

Teacher play important role to help the Bhikshus:

· Developing right Knowledge.

· Developing Right Will.

· Developing right Speech.

· Developing Right Conduct.

· Developing Right Memory.

· Developing Right means of Livelihood.

· Developing Right Concentrations.

5. Rituals: Pabubja ritual is a sacred ceremony which was performed before the child was intuited into the field education ‘Vinaypataka’. The student had his head shaved of all hair, dressed himself in yellow clothes, placed his forehead at the feet of the Monks and then sat crossed legs on the floor to repeat the following words thrice:

i) Buddham Sharnam Gachchami

ii) Dhrmam Sharnam Gachchami

iii) Sangam Sharnam Gachchami

After Performing of this ritual, the student was called ‘Shramana’ or ‘Sammer’ After the age of twenty years, the student had to adopt ‘Up sampada’ this was the period of higher learning. After this ritual the monks were called ‘Bhikshu’. And female monks ‘Bhikshuni’.

6.Educational Institutions: Bhikshus were taught through monasteries and vihars. The teachers as well as taught resided. There were no organized ‘Gurukul’. The responsibility of the board and lodging was that of ‘Sangh’. Vihars had very nice and comfortable buildings. Thousands of monks could live easily and there was suitable arrangement for everything. Nalada and Vallabhi among the major learning centers during 700 A.D

7. Medium of instruction: The Medium of Buddhist was the Common language of the People i.e. Palli or Various Prakrits.

· Emphasises on Local Languages.

· Not much Significance of Sanskrit.

· Yantra-Mantra-Tantra.

8. Discipline: In Buddhist education, Students were expected to live an ideal life in pursuit of Buddha’s Eight-fold Path. There were on Punishment.

9. Women education: In Buddhist’s Period, was opposed to the education of women. Due to responsibilities at home they were not allowed admission in Buddhist monasteries.

10. Role of the State: In Buddhist’s Period, Buddha was opposed in the spread of education among the People. Buddhist offered liberal contribution, in terms of money to the monasteries for education.

Muslim Education

Muslim education system was essentially religious in character. Medieval Period begins with the incoming of Muslims. So this Period also Called ‘Mohammedan’ Period. Mahmud Ghazanavi, Mohammed Ghauri, Qutab-ud-Din-Aibak, Iltumish, Razia and Balban, Shahzada Mohammad, Khilzi Kings Tughing Kings early Muslim famous Kings. Muslim education received greater encouragement and attention during Mughal Period.Babar,Humayan, Shershah suri, Akbar,Jahangir, Shahjahan, Dara Shikoh, Auragzeb, Bahadur Shah, are Famous Mughal Kings.

Salient features of Muslim Education: Muslim faith in land’s they invaded and settled. Education in Medieval India is a great epoch of Indian education. The educational institutions they founded became strong holds of Muslim orthodoxy. The Muslim attached great importance to education. Education is better than the holy ‘Quran’. It is better to educate one’s Child than to give gold in charity knowledge should be sough from the cradle to the grave.

1) Aims of Education: The sole aim of muslim education became spared of Islam, was Called Ghazi or martyr. The Ultimate aim of Islamic education was to get ‘Nijat’ (Mukti). The important aims of muslim education.

· Propagation of Islam.

· Development of Character and Morality.

· Spread of Knowledge.

· Expansion of Islamic Kingdom.

· Political development.

2.Curriculum: Curriculum at primary stage knowledge of 3R’s- Reading writing and arithmetic. Urdu formed one of the Chief Subjects of Study, Religious instructions were also given at Primary level. At the Secondary level Grammar,
Natural Science, History, Astronomy, Military education given to the students. And at higher Secondary stage, The religious equation in called the study of quran, secular Curriculum and vocational education.

3. Methods of Instruction: In Medieval education, oral method, monitor system, lecture method, Reading & Writing, self study method, Potential symposia, Analytical and Inductive methods experimental method, are the methods of teaching.

4. Educational Institutions: When a child is four years four months and four days old an auspicious day is fixed for ceremony called Bismillah Khan to begin education with God’s Blessing. Primary education was given in Primary in Primary Schools i.e.Maktabs.

And in the medieval period, the secondary Education was given in ‘Madarshs’. These were high school importing education from 5^th Class to 10^th Class. Higher education was imported in madarsah-I-Alias. Thus main Characteristics of school education were:

· All were chiefly of a religious Character.

· The Course of instruction in Secular subjects.

· In teacher and taught paternal relationship.

5. Religious Orthodoxy: Muslim education main aim spread of Islamic education. The one who disseminates and diffuses Islamic beliefs, among the non-muslims, becomes Ghazi, ‘Muslim rulers established ‘ Maktabs’ and ‘Madarsahs for highly study. The Islamic laws, opinions, customs, were important subjects of study. The muslim sovereigns has a very keen interest in the education of their youth.

7. Teacher Pupil’s Relationship: During Medieval Period the teacher was very much respected. There was intimate and as cordial relationship between the teacher and the taught. The Pupil’s followed the precepts of the teacher. Students who acquired special knowledge in religion., wore given the degree of ‘Aim’. There was no hosted arrangement for the pupil’s of maktab’s.

8. Centers of Muslim Education: During Medieval Period, Agra, Delhi, Bengal, Bijapur, Bidan, Gujrat, Hyderabad, Jaunpur, Khandes, Malwas, Bengal, Sialkot, emerged importance centers of education.

· Mohammad Ghori, Known us builder of many schools.

· Akabar was intelligent king among Muslim rulers.

After the decline of the Mugal Empire the progress of education in India slowed down. The establishment of the East India Company in India and its armed interference in the affairs of the native princes caused a great deal of political disorder. But when the British Parliament Compelled it to devote its attention to India’s educational system, it tried to support the existing system. The Hindu’Pathshalas’and the ‘Muslim Maktabs’ and “Madarsahs’.

1. Establishment of Educational institutions by East India Company: The east India company’s charater of 1698 had directed the company to maintain schools of the kind called St. Mary’s Charity schools was started in madras in 1715. In 1725, European Christian missionaries had established seventeen schools for the children of the Hindus and Muslims and four missionary schools of the Christians. In 1804, The London Missionaries society established English schools in Ceylon Southern India and Bengal. The Christians missionaries came to be associated with the educational enterprise in India. They established their center at Serampore. They directed their educational activities from Serampore. They directed their educational activities from Serampore to convert Indians to Christianity. The missionaries had rendered valuable service to the cause of education in India. It was due to their efforts that the first missionary college was set up at Serampore in 1818, and the Bishop’s College was established in Calcutta in 1820.

The Officials of one East India company also prayed important role for the one spread of education. In 1781, Warren Hastings the first Governor-General of India, founded the ‘Calcutta Madras’ to qualify the sons of the Muslims through the Arabic medium for responsible. In 178, sir William Jones, a with the help of Warren Hastings, The Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal in Calcutta.

In 1816, established the Hindu college and developed into the famous presidency college in 1817. Raja Ram Mohan Rai started on English school at Calcutta to give free education to Hindu children.

2. East India Company’s Charter of 1813: When the Charter of the company was required by the British Parliament in 1813, the responsibility of the company for the education of the Indians was recognized. In 1823, it was from one lac rupees the grants were offered to the Calcutta School Book society and the Calcutta school society. In 1824, two Sanskrit colleges were established, one at Calcutta in 1824, an other at Delhi in 1825. Before, 1835, there existed three kinds of schools”
1. Vernacular Schools
2. Christian missionary schools.
3. The school of East India Company.

People linked the English medium of Instruction in stead of Sanskrit an Arabi medium of higher education.

Macaulay’s Minute of 1835

Lord Macaulay was to advise the government on its educational policy year 1813 may be referred as the beginning of the state system of education in India. Charter Act, 1813 did not specify the methods to secure the objects of ‘revival and improvement of literature’, ‘the encouragement of learned natives of India. Macaulay refrained from making any sweeping recommendations regarding the educational structure, he gave his famous MINUTE in February, 1835 about medium of instruction.

Main Features of Macaulay’s Minute:

· English as medium of instruction of Indian Education.

· English is a rich language and key to modern knowledge.

· Useful for bringing India renaissance.

· English language will civilize India.

· English literature and not Sanskrit of Arabic or Persian literature.

According to Lord Macaulay: “We want a class of persons, Indian in blood and colour but English in taste, in opinions, in morals and in intellect.”

· Great Importance to the education of the higher classes.

Approval of Macaulay’s Minute: Macaulay’s minute forwarded Mr. H.T.Princep the leader of the orient lists for recording his opinion. On March 7, 1835 William Bentinck passed orders for publishing a resolution.

3. Wood’s Dispatch (1854): Wood’s Dispatch Popularly known as Wood’s Educational Dispatch is the corner stone of Indian Education. It is some time been called magna Charta of India Education

Main Aim and Objectives of Wood’s Dispatch:

· Raise the Moral character.

· Make people of India familiar with work of European authors.

· Provide the east India company with educated.

Main Recommendations of Wood’s Dispatch:

· Main aim of education keeping in the view the interest of Indians and British Rule.

· Great importance of oriental languages

· Medium of instruction should be English.

· Establish department of Education and schools.

· Establishment of universities.

· Aim of education was to raise intellectual fitness and moral character of Indians.

· Government accepted the responsibility of the education of Indians.

· Wood emphasized the training of teachers.

· Wood dispatch recommended grants-in-aid to the educational institutions.

· Wood’s Dispatch great emphasis to women education.

· Wood’s Dispatch recommended that Muslim should be encouraged to gain more education.