What is An Environment

It is wherever you are. You know like when your at a party and it's really loud and your having a good time, well you would probably say the environment is noisy.

• Environment , the physical and biological factors along with their chemical interactions that affect an organism. Word "Environment" is most commonly used describing "natural" environment and means the sum of all living and non-living things that surround an organism, or group of organisms. Environment includes all elements, factors , and conditions that have some impact on growth and development of certain organism. Environment includes both biotic and abiotic factors that have influence on observed organism. Abiotic factors such as light, temperature, water, atmospheric gases combine with biotic factors (all surrounding living species). Environment often changes after some time and therefore many organisms have ability to adapt to these changes.
• That which environs or surrounds; surrounding conditions, influences, or forces, by which living forms are influenced and modified in their growth and development.The environment is your surroundings, your house, your garden, your town, your shops, the hills and rivers, the ocean, the air and so on.
• All plants and animals adjust to the environment in which they are born
• and live. A charge in any component of the environment may cause discomfort and affect normal life. Any unfavorable change or degeneration in the environment is known as Environmental Pollution. The environment is something you are very familiar with. It's everything that makes up our surroundings and affects our ability to live on the earth—the air we breathe, the water that covers most of the earth's surface, the plants and animals around us, and much more.
• Our Environment is our surrounding. This includes living and non-living things around us.
• 
  
• Land is the upper layer of our planet earth. It is made up of soil and rocks.
• Land stores water and provides a surface to live on. Soil contains nutrients and air
to nurse germs and plants. Fertility of the soil has been built up over hundreds of years. Soil is likely to be washed away with rain water or blown away by wind, if it is not protected under the cover of grasses, crops or trees.

CONCEPT OF ZERO

The first thing to say about zero is that there are two uses of zero which are both extremely important but are somewhat different. One use is as an empty place indicator in our place-value number system. Hence in a number like 2106 the zero is used so that the positions of the 2 and 1 are correct. Clearly 216 means something quite different. The second use of zero is as a number itself in the form we use it as 0. There are also different aspects of zero within these two uses, namely the concept, the notation, and the name.

... the mathematical conception of zero ... was also present in the spiritual form from 17 000 years back in India.

The nr. zero was invented independently in India and by the Maya. In India a decimal system was used, like ours, but they used an empty space for zero up to 3rd Century BC. This was confusing for an empty space was also used to separate numbers, and so they invented the dot for a zero. The first evidence for the use of the symbol that we now know as zero stems from the 7th century AD. The Maya invented the number zero for their calendars in the 3rd century AD. The number zero reached European civilisation through the Arabs after 800 AD. The Greek and Roman did not need the number zero for they did their calculations on an abacus. The name 'zero' comes from the arabic 'sifr'.

In around 500AD Aryabhata devised a number system which has no zero yet was a positional system. He used the word "kha" for position and it would be used later as the name for zero. There is evidence that a dot had been used in earlier Indian manuscripts to denote an empty place in positional notation. It is interesting that the same documents sometimes also used a dot to denote an unknown where we might use x. Later Indian mathematicians had names for zero in positional numbers yet had no symbol for it. The first record of the Indian use of zero which is dated and agreed by all to be genuine was written in 876. We are usually taught to count "one to ten" first. Then, we are told that zero is a placeholder. After that we learn that it is equal to nothing. In this article, you'll learn a much easier way to understand the concept of zero.

(1) A quantity divided by zero becomes a fraction the denominator of which is zero. This fraction is termed an infinite quantity. In this quantity consisting of that which has zero for its divisor, there is no alteration, though many may be inserted or extracted; as no change takes place in the infinite and immutable God when worlds are created or destroyed, though numerous orders of beings are absorbed or put forth.

(2) If we subtract a positive number from zero the same negative number remains. ... if we subtract a negative number from zero the same positive number remains.

The concept of Zero is attributed to the Hindus. The Hindus were also the first to use zero in the way it is used today. Some symbol was required in positional number systems to mark the place of a power of the base not actually occurring. This was indicated by the Hindus by a small circle, which was called Shunya, the Sanskrit word for vacant. This was translated into the Arabic Sifr about 800 A.D. Subsequent changes have given us the word zero. The sum of zero and a negative number is negative, the sum of a positive number and zero is positive, the sum of zero and zero is zero. Quipu, a knotted cord device, used in the Inca Empire and its predecessor societies in the Andeanregion to record accounting and other digital data, is encoded in a base ten positional system. Zero is represented by the absence of a knot in the appropriate position. The renowned mathematicians among the Ancient Greeks, who learned the fundamentals of their math from the Egyptians, did not have a name for zero, nor did their system feature a placeholder as did the Babylonian. They may have pondered it, but there is no conclusive evidence to say the symbol even existed in their language. It was the Indians who began to understand zero both as a symbol and as an idea. The Italian mathematician, Fibonacci, built on Al-Khowarizmi's work with algorithms in his book Liber Abaci, or "Abacus book," in 1202. Until that time, the abacus had been the most prevalent tool to perform arithmetic operations. Fibonacci's developments quickly gained notice by Italian merchants and German bankers, especially the use of zero. Accountants knew their books were balanced when the positive and negative amounts of their assets and liabilities equaled zero. But governments were still suspicious of Arabic numerals because of the ease in which it was possible to change one symbol into another. Though outlawed, merchants continued to use zero in encrypted messages, thus the derivation of the word cipher, meaning code, from the Arabic sifr. The second appearance of zero occurred independently in the New World, in Mayan culture, likely in the first few centuries A.D. "That, I suppose, is the most striking example of the zero being devised wholly from scratch," Kaplan says. Kaplan pinpoints an even earlier emergence of a placeholder zero, a pair of angled wedges used by the Sumerians to denote an empty number column some 4,000 to 5,000 years ago. Zero has played quite a role in making of numerals or at least modern numerals. The modern numerals were based on the Arabic numeric system as indicated by this article. Al-Khw rizm+ laid foundation to modern numerics in Arabic format of course. Not to forget he is the same guy who laid foundation of Algebra and Algorithms to name a a few. IMPORTANCE OF ZERO: Before you talk about existence or non-existence of zero would you care to explain what mathematical objects you think do exist and in what sense. Moreover, why are these other things you trust not also inventions "just to make stuff work"? if i have an apple i name the quantity 1... so if i have two apples i can i can do 1*2 and get 2 apples... so in that sense 1 exists.... but saying that you have 0 apples when you have nothing is not the same thing... because 0 is nothing... One might have thought that the progress of the number systems in general, and zero in particular, would have been steady from this time on. However, this was far from the case. Cardan solved cubic and quartic equations without using zero. He would have found his work in the 1500's so much easier if he had had a zero but it was not part of his mathematics. By the 1600's zero began to come into widespread use but still only after encountering a lot of resistance. Zero,(that is ,the '0'symbol in mathematics) is really a wonderful invention by our anicients.A heap of objects however large can be counted easily by deviding them into groups of ten objects. Again ten such groups, each containing ten objects, can be sealed into a bag to contain one hundred objects .Ten such bags can be put into a bigger bag which then contains 1000 objects.

NEW_BOOKS Just Released : TEACHING OF MATHEMATICS & GANIT SHIKSHAN : (HINDI)

TEACHING OF MATHEMATICS
CHAMAN LAL BANGA
ISBN : 9788175416130(HB); 9788175416147(PB)
Year : 2012
Bibliography : xii+284pp
Price : Rs. 750 (HB);
About the Book
Mathematics, the science of calculation and logical reasoning, has played a decisive role in building up every civilization. Mathematics, like every thing else that man has created, exists to fulfill not only certain needs and desires but also helps in faster development in this digital age. So it also occupies an important place in the curriculum. The book written in simple language may be found useful by its users.

About the Author
Chaman Lal Banga, M.A., M.Ed., NET & J.R.F. (Education) has been associated with teaching profession for the last seven years. He taught to B.Ed. students in Himachal Pradesh and is presently working with Department of Education, Government of Himachal Pradesh at Chamba, HP.

GANIT SHIKSHAN : (HINDI)
CHAMAN LAL BANGA, R.K. DIXIT
ISBN : 9788175416116(HB); 9788175416123(PB)
Year : 2012
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Price : Rs. 750 (HB)

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CTET 2012 : HIMACHAL PRADESH (GK)

• Himachal Pradesh Popularly known as the Devbhumi ­– "Land of the Gods".
• Himachal Pradesh is a beautiful hill state in India, nestles in north-west region of western Himalayas.
• The state is landlocked with the Tibetan plateau to the east, Jammu and Kashmir to the north, and the Punjab to the west.
• Himachal Pradesh has been on the path of progress since Independence. The literacy rate of the state is 63% now and is improving every decade.
• The population has almost stabilized at about 5 million, thanks to high literacy and effective family planning programs.
• Every village in the state has electricity and drinking water now.

Himachal as Devbhoomi

• Shiva is one of the gods of the Trinity. He is said to be the god of destruction.
• Shiva is believed to be at the core of the centrifugal force of the universe, because of his responsibility for death and destruction. But Shiva dissolves in order to create, since death is the medium for rebirth into a new life.
• So the opposites of life and death and creation and destruction both reside in his character. The other two gods are Brahma, the god of creation and Vishnu, the god of maintenance.
• The three gods represent the three fundamental powers of nature which are manifest in the world viz. creation, destruction and maintenance.
• These powers exist perpetually. Creation is going on all the time. So is destruction and maintenance. All three powers are manifest at all times.
• They are inseparable. Creation and destruction are like two sides of a coin. And maintenance is an integral part of the processes of creation and destruction. For example, morning dies to give birth to noon. Noon dies when night is born.
• In this chain of birth and death the day is maintained. To indicate that these three processes are one and the same, the three gods are combined in one form of Lord Dattatreya. Lord Dattatreya has the faces of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva.
• Himachal Pradesh is called the ‘Apple State’ because the country’s first apples were cultivated here. It was also the first Indian state to process potatoes.
• Asia’s largest fruit-processing plant and the world’s highest cricket grounds are located at Parwanoo and Chail (near Shimla) in Himachal Pradesh.
• The state is located in altitudes ranging from 450 meters to 6500 meters above sea level.
• It is veiled from the plains by the Shivalik range of mountains. (Shivalik literally means the tresses of Lord Shiva).
• There is a general increase in elevation from west to east and from south to north.
• The physiographic divisions from south to north are (1) The outer Himalayas or the Shivaliks (2) The lesser Himalayas or the central zone (3) The great Himalayan and Zaskar or the northern zone.
• Himachal has 49 cities and towns.
• The smallest town is Naina Devi and the largest is Shimla with a population of about 6,17,404.
• Urban population is only 7.5% of the total population.
• The state of Himachal Pradesh has an area of 55,673 sq. km. and a population of 6.08 million.
• There are 12 districts, 77 blocks and 20118 villages.
• The State has population density of 109 per sq. km. (as against the national average of 312).
• The decadal growth rate of the state is 17.54% (against 21.54% for the country) and the population of the state is growing at a slower rate than the national rate.
• Himachal Pradesh way back in the ninth century. In 1009 AD, Himachal Pradesh saw the invasion of Mahmud Ghazni, who had looted the wealth from the temples in north India.
• Himachal Pradesh was also no exception to his plunders.
• After the independence of India in 1947, Himachal Pradesh became a centrally administered territory with the integration of 31 hill provinces.
• Some additional regions were integrated into the ambit of Himachal Pradesh in 1966. In 1956, Himachal Pradesh became a union territory, and it was elevated to the status of statehood on 25 January 1971.

  · The state of Himachal Pradesh was called 'Deva Bhoomi ' or the Land of the Gods. There are evidences of the existence of the pre-historic humans in this region.

  · The earliest history of Himachal Pradesh dates back to the period between 2250 and 1750 BC when it was inhabited by the people of Indus valley civilization.

  · These people pushed the original inhabitants of Ganga plains who were known as Kolorian people towards north.

  · The first race to enter Himachal Pradesh was Proto-Australoid followed by Mongoloid and the Aryan.

  · The Rig Veda mentions about Dasyus and Nishads living in this region and their powerful king Shambra who had 99 forts.

  · From the early period of its history, tribes like the Koilis, Halis, Dagis, Dhaugris, Dasa, Khasas, Kinnars and Kirats inhabited it.

  · In the Vedas they (people of Himachal) have been referred to as Dasas, Dasyus and Nishadas while in later works they have been called Kinnars, Nagas and Yakshas.

  · The small kingdom enjoyed a large degree of independence till the eve of the Muslim invasions in northern India

  · . The states of the foothills were devastated by Muslim invaders a number of times.Mahmud Ghaznavi conquered Kangra at the beginning of the 10th century.

  · Timur and Sikander Lodi also marched through the lower hills of the state and captured a number of forts and fought manybattles.
  The Gorkhas, a martial tribe came to power in Nepal in the year 1768. They consolidated their military power and began to expand their territory.

  · The Gurkhas who migrated from Nepal captured the area and devastated it . Gradually the Gorkhas annexed Sirmour and Shimla. With the leadership of Amar Singh Thapa, Gorkhas laid siege to Kangra.

WORK EDUCATION & WORK EXPERIENCE ; EDUCATION FOR VALUES, ENVIRONMENT & HUMAN RIGHTS

INDIAN GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS: PROCESS AND DYNAMICS

INDIAN GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS: PROCESS AND DYNAMICS

CHAMAN LAL BANGA

M.A.POLITICAL SCIENCE (DISTANCE LEARNING)

INDIAN GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS: PROCESS AND DYNAMICS

By

Chaman Lal Banga

B.Sc; B.Ed; M.Ed; M.A.(Pol. Science)

NET (Pol. Science)

NET (Education);

JRF (Education).

PREFACE

It is by the Grace and Blessing of the Almighty God that the writing of this book has reached its stage of completion. I bow by head to Him for his mercy.

The present book is an attempt to provide a useful literature to Prospective teachers.

This book is prepared in accordance with the UGC curriculum. It is organized into V - UNITS. This book fully covers the courses contents of the paper entitle” TEACHING & RESEARCH APTITUDE”. This book contains objective questions on all the topics in this paper. This book has been written particularly for University Grant Commission- National Eligibility Test & Junior Research Fellowship Test. While writing this book special care has been taken to incorporate quality material. Because it is quality which matters not quantity.

I hope students appearing in UGC-NET/JRF examination in the Indian Universities will find this book as a concise guide to meet their requirements.

I am extremely beholden to my respected father Shri Ghisu Ram Banga and wife Mrs.Manju Banga , & brother Jogi Ram Kanyal, who been a pillar of strength in my work all through.

I am greatly indebted to all my friends and well-wishers to encourage me to write a handy book on UGC-NET/JRF.

The author is grateful to all the publishers and authors whose work he has made use of in preparing this book.

I shall remain indebted to & Sh. D.K.Jain, Principal JNV Sarol Chamba, & Dr.B.S.Jamwal, for their invaluable help and guidance. The author extends his sincere thanks to Anshah Publishing House for bringing out this book in a short span of time. Only reader’s valuable suggestions and feedback can make this book a phenomenal success

Author

CHAMAN LAL BANGA

SYLLABUS

M.A. POLITICAL SCIENCE (DISTANCE LEARNING)

UNIT- I

1. Colonialism, Nationalism, Historical and Ideological Basis of the Constitution.
2. Basic Structures of the Constitution.

UNIT- II

3. Issues and trends; Federalism; Regionalism; National Integration.

UNIT- III

4. Political Parties, Pressure Groups, Defection, Coalition Politics, Electoral Politics.

UNIT- IV

5. Politics of Castes, Tribe, Religion and Language.
6. Political Violence and Political Corruption.

UNIT- V

7. Civil Society: Gender Politics, Environment Politics, N.G.O’s.
8. Tribal Movement, Dalit Movement and Peasant Movement.

UNIT- I

1. Colonialism, Nationalism, Historical and Ideological Basis of the Constitution. 2. Basic Structures of the Constitution.

Chapter 1

Colonialism

Colonialism is the building and maintaining of colonies in one territory by people from another territory. Colonialism is a process whereby sovereignty over the colony is claimed by the metropole and social structure, government and economics within the territory of the colony are changed by the colonists. Colonialism is a certain set of unequal relationships, between metropole and colony and between colonists and the indigenous population. --------------------------------- COLONIALISM.

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS (UGC/NET/JRF) (PRACTICE )

1. Which one of the following is the main objective of teaching?

(A) To give information related to the syllabus.

(B) To develop thinking power of students.

(C) To dictate notes to students.

(D) To prepare students to pass the examination.

2. Which one of the following is a good method of teaching?

(A) Lecture and Dictation

(B) Seminar and Project

(C) Seminar and Dictation

(D) Dictation and Assignment

3. Teacher uses teaching aids for

(A) Making teaching interesting

(B) Making teaching within understanding level of students

(C) Making students attentive.

(D) The sake of its use.

4. Effectiveness of teaching depends on

(A) Qualification of teacher

(B) Personality of teacher

(C) Handwriting of teacher

(D) Subject understanding of teacher

5. Which of the following is not characteristic of a good question paper?

(A) Objectivity

(B) Subjectivity

(C) No use of vague words

(D) Reliable.

6. A researcher is generally expected to:

(A) Study the existing literature in a field

(B) Generate new principles and theories

(C) Synthesize the idea given by others

(D) Evaluate the findings of a study

7. One of the essential characteristics of research is:

(A) Replicability

(B) Generalizability

(C) Usability

(D) Objectivity

8. The Government of India conducts Census after every 10 years. The method of research used in this process is:

(A) Case Study

(B) Developmental

(C) Survey

(D) Experimental

9. An academic association assembled at one place to discuss the progress of its work and future plans. Such an assembly is known as a

(A) Conference

(B) Seminar

(C) Workshop

(D) Symposium

10. An investigator studied the census date for a given area and prepared a write-up based on them. Such a write-up is called

(A) Research paper

(B) Article

(C) Thesis

(D) Research report